sonakshisinha.net – The presidency of Andrew Johnson is one of the most tumultuous and controversial in American history. Ascending to the highest office following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865, Johnson faced the monumental task of leading a fractured nation through the difficult period of Reconstruction after the Civil War. His presidency, however, was marked by bitter conflict with Congress, divisive policies on race and the South, and ultimately, his impeachment—the first in U.S. history. Andrew Johnson’s tenure in office highlighted the deep divisions that remained in America after the war and the complexities of healing a nation torn apart by slavery, rebellion, and civil strife.
This article will explore the significant events, policies, and controversies of Andrew Johnson’s presidency, his vision for Reconstruction, and how his leadership both reflected and exacerbated the divisions within the nation during one of its most critical periods.
The Ascension to Power
From Tailor to Vice President
Before becoming president, Andrew Johnson had a long and varied political career. Born into poverty in North Carolina in 1808, he rose from the humble beginnings of a tailor’s apprentice to a prominent political figure. Johnson moved to Tennessee and entered politics, serving as a congressman, governor, and senator. Known for his populist rhetoric and championing the interests of poor white Southerners, Johnson was an advocate for the common man. Despite being a Democrat and a Southern slaveholder, he remained loyal to the Union during the Civil War—a stance that would make him an unlikely hero to Northern Republicans during the war.
In 1864, President Abraham Lincoln chose Johnson as his running mate for the presidential election, creating a National Union ticket that symbolized the unity between Northern Republicans and Unionist Democrats. Johnson’s selection was largely strategic: as a Southerner who had remained loyal to the Union, he appealed to war Democrats and border states. The victory of Lincoln and Johnson secured their roles as leaders in the Union’s fight to preserve the nation.
The Assassination of Lincoln
On April 14, 1865, just days after the Confederate surrender at Appomattox Court House, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth. The shocking death of the beloved president thrust Andrew Johnson into the presidency at a time when the country was still reeling from the Civil War. Lincoln’s vision for a lenient and compassionate Reconstruction process was left incomplete, and Johnson, who shared some of Lincoln’s views on leniency, was now tasked with leading the nation through its most fragile moment.
Johnson’s Vision for Reconstruction
A Lenient Approach to the South
Upon taking office, Johnson pledged to follow in Lincoln’s footsteps by pursuing a moderate approach to Reconstruction. He sought to quickly restore the Southern states to the Union without imposing harsh punishments or radical changes to the Southern social order. Johnson believed in a policy of swift restoration, arguing that the states had never truly left the Union, and he sought to reintegrate them with minimal federal interference.
In May 1865, Johnson issued his Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, which offered pardons to most former Confederates who pledged loyalty to the Union and agreed to accept the end of slavery. He allowed Southern states to form new governments and hold elections to send representatives to Congress. This lenient policy gave white Southerners significant leeway in shaping their post-war governments, and many of the new state governments were dominated by former Confederate leaders.
Johnson’s approach to Reconstruction was deeply unpopular among Radical Republicans in Congress, who believed that the South needed to be thoroughly transformed to prevent a resurgence of the old slave-holding elite. They argued that the former Confederate states should be subjected to strict requirements before being readmitted to the Union, including guarantees of civil rights and voting rights for newly freed African Americans. Johnson’s leniency, they feared, would allow the South to restore its antebellum power structures and deny African Americans their hard-won freedom.
The Black Codes and Opposition from Congress
One of the most immediate and controversial consequences of Johnson’s Reconstruction policy was the emergence of Black Codes in Southern states. These laws, enacted by the new Southern state governments in late 1865 and early 1866, sought to restrict the freedom of African Americans and maintain a system of racial hierarchy. The Black Codes imposed severe restrictions on African Americans’ rights to work, travel, marry, and own property, effectively reducing them to a state of quasi-slavery.
The passage of the Black Codes outraged many Northerners and fueled opposition to Johnson’s lenient Reconstruction policies. Radical Republicans, led by figures like Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner, believed that Reconstruction should not only reunify the nation but also guarantee civil rights and equality for African Americans. They viewed Johnson’s approach as a betrayal of the Union’s victory and the promises of emancipation.
In response, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which aimed to nullify the Black Codes and protect the civil rights of African Americans. Johnson, however, vetoed the bill, arguing that it represented an overreach of federal power and that matters of civil rights should be left to the states. Congress, in a rare move, overrode Johnson’s veto, marking the first time in U.S. history that a presidential veto on a major piece of legislation was overturned. This event signaled the beginning of a fierce power struggle between the president and Congress over the direction of Reconstruction.
The Struggle Between Johnson and Congress
The Reconstruction Acts
By 1867, the conflict between Johnson and Congress had reached a breaking point. Congress, now dominated by Radical Republicans, took control of Reconstruction and passed the Reconstruction Acts, which divided the South into five military districts and placed them under federal control. The acts required Southern states to hold constitutional conventions, draft new constitutions that guaranteed voting rights for African Americans, and ratify the 14th Amendment, which granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all people born or naturalized in the United States.
Johnson strongly opposed the Reconstruction Acts, believing that they were punitive measures that violated states’ rights. He vetoed the legislation, but once again, Congress overrode his veto. The enactment of the Reconstruction Acts marked a significant turning point in the Reconstruction process, as federal authority was imposed over the Southern states to ensure that the rights of African Americans were protected.
The Tenure of Office Act and Johnson’s Impeachment
The growing rift between Johnson and Congress came to a head in 1868 with the president’s violation of the Tenure of Office Act. Passed by Congress in 1867, the law was designed to limit the president’s power to remove certain officeholders without the Senate’s approval. The law was specifically aimed at protecting Edwin M. Stanton, the Secretary of War and a staunch supporter of Radical Reconstruction, from being dismissed by Johnson.
In defiance of the Tenure of Office Act, Johnson attempted to remove Stanton and replace him with Lorenzo Thomas. This act of defiance provided Radical Republicans with the justification they needed to pursue Johnson’s impeachment. On February 24, 1868, the House of Representatives voted to impeach Johnson, charging him with “high crimes and misdemeanors.”
The Senate impeachment trial began in March 1868, and after weeks of testimony and deliberation, Johnson narrowly avoided conviction by just one vote. While he remained in office for the remainder of his term, his power and influence were significantly diminished.
Johnson’s Legacy
A Divisive Presidency
Andrew Johnson’s presidency was marked by deep divisions within the country and between the executive and legislative branches of government. His lenient approach to Reconstruction and his opposition to civil rights for African Americans placed him in direct conflict with Congress and alienated much of the Northern electorate. His failure to effectively address the needs of African Americans and his willingness to allow former Confederates to regain political power left a lasting legacy of racial inequality and tension in the South.
Johnson’s presidency also set an important precedent in American history: the first impeachment of a sitting president. While Johnson was not removed from office, his impeachment underscored the potential for conflict between the branches of government and raised important questions about the limits of presidential power.
The Long-Term Impact of Johnson’s Policies
The long-term impact of Johnson’s Reconstruction policies was significant. His leniency toward the South and his failure to protect the rights of African Americans contributed to the rise of white supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan and the eventual implementation of Jim Crow laws in the Southern states. These developments led to the disenfranchisement and marginalization of African Americans for decades to come.
Johnson’s presidency is often viewed as a missed opportunity to create a more just and equal society in the aftermath of the Civil War. While the Radical Republicans succeeded in passing important civil rights legislation during Reconstruction, many of the gains made during this period were rolled back in the years following Johnson’s presidency. The full realization of civil rights and racial equality would not be achieved until the Civil Rights Movement of the 20th century.
Conclusion: A Nation Divided
The presidency of Andrew Johnson was a period of intense conflict, both within the federal government and across the country. As the leader tasked with overseeing Reconstruction, Johnson’s policies and actions often deepened the divisions that already existed between North and South, and between advocates of civil rights and those seeking to maintain the old social order. His presidency, marked by controversy, impeachment, and a failed vision of national reconciliation, left a complex and contentious legacy in American history.